PM, Amit Shah discuss damage control, Raje cancels Punjab visit
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NEW DELHI: Battling a major crisis over Lalitgate revelations, BJP chief Amit Shah discussed with Prime Minister Narendra Modi damage-control measures amid mounting demands for removal of Sushma Swaraj and Rajasthan chief minister Vasundhara Raje, who on Friday cancelled her visit to Punjab where she would have come face-to-face with Shah.
Sources said that Shah, who had gone to PM's residence along with a delegation UP farmers last evening, stayed back and had a detailed discussion with Modi.
Shah is understood to have discussed possible damage control measures in the wake of fresh disclosures indicating links of Raje and external affairs minister Swaraj with scam-tainted former IPL boss Lalit Modi.
The sources said Shah is also in touch with RSS leadership on the issue. While BJP's top leaders have come out in support of Swaraj, they are yet to openly back Raje.
Citing health reason, Raje on Friday cancelled her visit to Punjab where she would have come face-to-face with Shah for the first time since the damaging revelations that she allegedly favoured Lalit Modi's immigration plea in London.
Raje was scheduled to share the dais with Shah and Union home minister Rajnath Singh at the function in Anandpur Sahib celebrating 350 years of the key Sikh shrine.
"Due to back pain, the chief minister's doctor has advised her to take rest so she has cancelled her visit to Punjab today," Raje's press advisor said in Jaipur.
Raje had spoken to Shah over phone on Wednesday to explain her position.
Congress has been demanding her immediate resignation along with that of Sushma Swaraj, saying they have no right to continue in office after helping the former IPL chairman who is facing money laundering and other charges.
However, Rajathan health minister Rajendra Rathore rejected demands for Raje's resignation, saying the entire national BJP and party MLAs were with her.
"The entire BJP be it at the Centre or the state are with her. She has been leading us and will continue to do so. The entire legislature party is standing strongly with her. Our leadership is standing by her. The question of her resignation does not arise," he had said.
Meanwhile, BJP veteran Murli Manohar Joshi extended support to Swaraj and visited her residence here.
Joshi spent more than half an hour with her.
Swaraj continued her engagements today and called on Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete, who is currently in India on an official visit.
NEW DELHI: Battling a major crisis over Lalitgate revelations, BJP chief Amit Shah discussed with Prime Minister Narendra Modi damage-control measures amid mounting demands for removal of Sushma Swaraj and Rajasthan chief minister Vasundhara Raje, who on Friday cancelled her visit to Punjab where she would have come face-to-face with Shah.Sources said that Shah, who had gone to PM's residence along with a delegation UP farmers last evening, stayed back and had a detailed discussion with Modi.
Shah is understood to have discussed possible damage control measures in the wake of fresh disclosures indicating links of Raje and external affairs minister Swaraj with scam-tainted former IPL boss Lalit Modi.
The sources said Shah is also in touch with RSS leadership on the issue. While BJP's top leaders have come out in support of Swaraj, they are yet to openly back Raje.
Citing health reason, Raje on Friday cancelled her visit to Punjab where she would have come face-to-face with Shah for the first time since the damaging revelations that she allegedly favoured Lalit Modi's immigration plea in London.
Raje was scheduled to share the dais with Shah and Union home minister Rajnath Singh at the function in Anandpur Sahib celebrating 350 years of the key Sikh shrine.
"Due to back pain, the chief minister's doctor has advised her to take rest so she has cancelled her visit to Punjab today," Raje's press advisor said in Jaipur.
Raje had spoken to Shah over phone on Wednesday to explain her position.
Congress has been demanding her immediate resignation along with that of Sushma Swaraj, saying they have no right to continue in office after helping the former IPL chairman who is facing money laundering and other charges.
However, Rajathan health minister Rajendra Rathore rejected demands for Raje's resignation, saying the entire national BJP and party MLAs were with her.
"The entire BJP be it at the Centre or the state are with her. She has been leading us and will continue to do so. The entire legislature party is standing strongly with her. Our leadership is standing by her. The question of her resignation does not arise," he had said.
Meanwhile, BJP veteran Murli Manohar Joshi extended support to Swaraj and visited her residence here.
Joshi spent more than half an hour with her.
Swaraj continued her engagements today and called on Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete, who is currently in India on an official visit.
SC tells CBSE to hold AIPMT and declare result by August 17
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NEW DELHI: The Supreme Court on Friday extended the time for conducting All India Pre-Medical and Pre-Dental Entrance Test (AIPMT) by one month and directed CBSE to hold the test and declare result by August 17.
Earlier, the court had directed CBSE to conduct re-examination by July 15.
"You take up the task of re-examination of AIMPT on most urgent basis," the top court told CBSE, granting it an additional month for the re-examination.
A bench headed by RK Agrawal turned down the plea of CBSE, which had sought three-month time period for the purpose.
The bench directed MCI to complete first counselling of AIPMT successful students by last week of August and second counselling by September 4.
The CBSE had on Thursday told the apex court that it was impossible to conduct AIPMT within a month as directed by the court.
It told the court that the board required at least three months to conduct re-examination of AIPMT.
The Supreme Court had earlier cancelled this year's AIPMT, finding it rigged by tech-savvy students who cheated in the examination by getting answers to questions through electronic devices they smuggled into test centres across the country.
AIPMT is the gateway for admission to 15% of seats in all central government medical colleges and participating state government medical colleges.
Over 6.3 lakh students had on May 3 taken the entrance examination, competing for 3,000-odd MBBS and BDS seats in top medical colleges.
NEW DELHI: The Supreme Court on Friday extended the time for conducting All India Pre-Medical and Pre-Dental Entrance Test (AIPMT) by one month and directed CBSE to hold the test and declare result by August 17.Earlier, the court had directed CBSE to conduct re-examination by July 15.
"You take up the task of re-examination of AIMPT on most urgent basis," the top court told CBSE, granting it an additional month for the re-examination.
A bench headed by RK Agrawal turned down the plea of CBSE, which had sought three-month time period for the purpose.
The bench directed MCI to complete first counselling of AIPMT successful students by last week of August and second counselling by September 4.
The CBSE had on Thursday told the apex court that it was impossible to conduct AIPMT within a month as directed by the court.
It told the court that the board required at least three months to conduct re-examination of AIPMT.
The Supreme Court had earlier cancelled this year's AIPMT, finding it rigged by tech-savvy students who cheated in the examination by getting answers to questions through electronic devices they smuggled into test centres across the country.
AIPMT is the gateway for admission to 15% of seats in all central government medical colleges and participating state government medical colleges.
Over 6.3 lakh students had on May 3 taken the entrance examination, competing for 3,000-odd MBBS and BDS seats in top medical colleges.
SC grants bail to Subrata Roy, but no release without paying Rs 10,000 crore
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NEW DELHI: The Supreme court on Friday granted bail to jailed Sahara group chief Subrata Roy but said he would be released from Tihar Jail only after the group paid up Rs 10,000 crore, half in cash and half through bank guarantee.
The SC said on the day Roy meets the condition he would be released and from then and in the next 18 months, he has to pay up the rest of the amount, which is around Rs 20,000 crore more.
The Rs 20,000 crore amount has to be paid in 9 equal instalments and one instalment every two months.
If he failed to pay three instalments, not necessarily consecutive, Roy would be taken back into custody, the court warned.
The SC also said in the event of Roy's release, he would deposit his passport and cannot go out of India without prior permission of court.
The court also asked him to report to Tilak Marg police station in New Delhi every fortnight.
The SC extended communication and conference facility to Roy in Tihar jail for another eight weeks.
NEW DELHI: The Supreme court on Friday granted bail to jailed Sahara group chief Subrata Roy but said he would be released from Tihar Jail only after the group paid up Rs 10,000 crore, half in cash and half through bank guarantee. The SC said on the day Roy meets the condition he would be released and from then and in the next 18 months, he has to pay up the rest of the amount, which is around Rs 20,000 crore more.
The Rs 20,000 crore amount has to be paid in 9 equal instalments and one instalment every two months.
If he failed to pay three instalments, not necessarily consecutive, Roy would be taken back into custody, the court warned.
The SC also said in the event of Roy's release, he would deposit his passport and cannot go out of India without prior permission of court.
The court also asked him to report to Tilak Marg police station in New Delhi every fortnight.
The SC extended communication and conference facility to Roy in Tihar jail for another eight weeks.
Next 2-3 years 'very critical' for economic reforms: Jaitley
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NEW YORK: Finance minister Arun Jaitley has said that the next 2 to 3 years will be "very critical" as the government plans to implement a series of reforms that will help India reach its "destination targets" of growthhigher than the current 7-7.5 per cent rates.
"(In) India today neither the government, the people or the industry are very excited about a 7-7.5 per cent growth rate because everybody realises, including me and the Prime Minister, that probably our potential is a little higher than that," Jaitley said here on Thursday.
During a discussion with president of investment firm Warburg Pincus and former US treasury secretary Timothy Geithner organised by the think tank Council on Foreign Relations, Jaitley said that his government has covered a "lot of distance" in the one year that it has been in power.
"Having covered this distance, the next two-three years are going to be very critical because the series of reform steps, which are in the pipeline, are all to be implemented. We now have identified all the problem areas and one by one as we go resolving most of them, hopefully we should reach what our destinations targets are," he said.
Jaitley, who is on a 10-day trip to the US, said the macro-economic indicators and "bare statistics" look good but the aspirations are much higher. He said in the last few years, India's credibility as an economy was being shaken.
"The last few years we lost the way once again. The reason why we lost way (is that) in terms of political administration and in terms of policy, we went wrong.
"In terms of political administration, within the government structure the prime ministers never had the last word, authorities were outside the government structure — the kind that could happen in a communist state.
"Devoid of that political authority, decision making came to a standstill. The Prime Minister did not have the last word and there were serious apprehensions that decisions were being taken or not taken for the wrong reasons," he said.
He said that on the policy front, where the country went wrong was that the government started concentrating not on increasing productivity or generating wealth but on just distributing what the country already had.
"It did not work. We were falling off the global radar but in India there was a huge change that had taken place between the 1970s and this generation where people were getting restless and they knew this is not our potential," he said.
"(In) India today neither the government, the people or the industry are very excited about a 7-7.5 per cent growth rate because everybody realises, including me and the Prime Minister, that probably our potential is a little higher than that," Jaitley said here on Thursday.
During a discussion with president of investment firm Warburg Pincus and former US treasury secretary Timothy Geithner organised by the think tank Council on Foreign Relations, Jaitley said that his government has covered a "lot of distance" in the one year that it has been in power.
"Having covered this distance, the next two-three years are going to be very critical because the series of reform steps, which are in the pipeline, are all to be implemented. We now have identified all the problem areas and one by one as we go resolving most of them, hopefully we should reach what our destinations targets are," he said.
Jaitley, who is on a 10-day trip to the US, said the macro-economic indicators and "bare statistics" look good but the aspirations are much higher. He said in the last few years, India's credibility as an economy was being shaken.
"The last few years we lost the way once again. The reason why we lost way (is that) in terms of political administration and in terms of policy, we went wrong.
"In terms of political administration, within the government structure the prime ministers never had the last word, authorities were outside the government structure — the kind that could happen in a communist state.
"Devoid of that political authority, decision making came to a standstill. The Prime Minister did not have the last word and there were serious apprehensions that decisions were being taken or not taken for the wrong reasons," he said.
He said that on the policy front, where the country went wrong was that the government started concentrating not on increasing productivity or generating wealth but on just distributing what the country already had.
"It did not work. We were falling off the global radar but in India there was a huge change that had taken place between the 1970s and this generation where people were getting restless and they knew this is not our potential," he said.
Manish Sisodia's car found overspeeding, fined by traffic cops
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NEW DELHI: Delhi deputy chief minister Manish Sisodia's car was found overspeeding by traffic cops who fined his driver at Khajuri Khas area in North East district.
The traffic policemen on duty at Khajuri Khas Chowk present inside the interceptor vehicle detected the overspeeding car on June 12 evening and sent a message to the next junction to stop the car.
"Deputy chief minister Manish Sisodia was travelling inside the car which was stopped by the traffic policemen and a challan of Rs 400 was issued for overspeeding," said a senior officer of the traffic department.
Special commissioner of police (traffic) Muktesh Chander said that the policemen just did their duty.
NEW DELHI: Delhi deputy chief minister Manish Sisodia's car was found overspeeding by traffic cops who fined his driver at Khajuri Khas area in North East district.The traffic policemen on duty at Khajuri Khas Chowk present inside the interceptor vehicle detected the overspeeding car on June 12 evening and sent a message to the next junction to stop the car.
"Deputy chief minister Manish Sisodia was travelling inside the car which was stopped by the traffic policemen and a challan of Rs 400 was issued for overspeeding," said a senior officer of the traffic department.
Special commissioner of police (traffic) Muktesh Chander said that the policemen just did their duty.
IMD: Monsoon to be good through June
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NEW DELHI: The monsoon is likely to remain strong through the month of June, the India Meteorological Department said on Thursday, as another storm system developed over the Bay of Bengal, promising widespread rain across central and south India over the next four-five days.
As on June 18, the monsoon was 10% above normal, mainly on account of excess rains over central India, the southeastern coast and parts of the Northeast.
"Looking at the rest of the month, our models do not show the monsoon weakening. Indications are that rainfall would remain good this month," IMD director B P Yadav said.
The monsoon, however, hasn't entered fresh areas since June 14. The monsoon line continues to pass through the southern tip of Gujarat, cutting through Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and south Odisha, before moving vertically through the eastern border of Bengal.
IMD has been predicting the monsoon's progress into some more parts of central and east India for the past few days. But barring Kerala, coastal Karnataka and some areas of the Northeast, rains have been good in regions covered so far by the rain system.
"The spell of good rains that started around June 10 continues. There is likely to be another surge in rainfall as a low pressure area off south Odisha-Andhra coast is expected to become a well-marked system in the next 24 hours and move inland," Yadav said.
The fresh surge, Yadav said, will led to an increase in the intensity, distribution and spread of rains in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Gujarat - areas that are already seeing wet weather.
While the forecast of normal rains in June would encourage sowing of the kharif crop, particularly in central India, uncertainty remains over monsoon's performance in July, an agriculturally crucial month which is also the wettest of the year.
IMD has predicted an 8% shortfall in rains during July, mainly on account of abnormally warm conditions in the Pacific Ocean — a periodic phenomenon call El Nino that's known to weaken monsoons in India.
NEW DELHI: The monsoon is likely to remain strong through the month of June, the India Meteorological Department said on Thursday, as another storm system developed over the Bay of Bengal, promising widespread rain across central and south India over the next four-five days. As on June 18, the monsoon was 10% above normal, mainly on account of excess rains over central India, the southeastern coast and parts of the Northeast.
"Looking at the rest of the month, our models do not show the monsoon weakening. Indications are that rainfall would remain good this month," IMD director B P Yadav said.
The monsoon, however, hasn't entered fresh areas since June 14. The monsoon line continues to pass through the southern tip of Gujarat, cutting through Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and south Odisha, before moving vertically through the eastern border of Bengal.
IMD has been predicting the monsoon's progress into some more parts of central and east India for the past few days. But barring Kerala, coastal Karnataka and some areas of the Northeast, rains have been good in regions covered so far by the rain system.
"The spell of good rains that started around June 10 continues. There is likely to be another surge in rainfall as a low pressure area off south Odisha-Andhra coast is expected to become a well-marked system in the next 24 hours and move inland," Yadav said.
The fresh surge, Yadav said, will led to an increase in the intensity, distribution and spread of rains in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Gujarat - areas that are already seeing wet weather.
While the forecast of normal rains in June would encourage sowing of the kharif crop, particularly in central India, uncertainty remains over monsoon's performance in July, an agriculturally crucial month which is also the wettest of the year.
IMD has predicted an 8% shortfall in rains during July, mainly on account of abnormally warm conditions in the Pacific Ocean — a periodic phenomenon call El Nino that's known to weaken monsoons in India.
India shares SAARC satellite concept note with regional nations
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NEW DELHI: Stepping up efforts to launch a dedicated satellite for the region, India has shared a concept note for a SAARC orbiter that is being proposed as an enabler to bring telemedicine, emergency communication and even television services to cooperation partners.
The new South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) satellite that was given a go ahead by PM Narendra Modi last year, is proposed as a 2 ton class communication satellite that will cover the entire region after being launched from the Indian spaceport at Sriharikota.
A concept note on the satellite —tentatively designated SAARC SAT — that has been shared with Saarc nations for a special meeting next week reveals details of the Indian plans for space cooperation in the region. "Satellite based connectivity can meet a number of challenges that the Saarc countries face in the areas of education, health support, emergency communication," the note says.
india is proposing that the satellite, to be configured with Ku band transponders, be controlled from ISRO facilities at Hassan or Bhopal and be managed by an inter-governmental space cooperation consortium that would allocate tasks and missions to the space system. Over 70 delegates from Saarc nations are expected to come for a seminar on Monday where the finer details of the project are to be discussed From the Indian side, representation will include officials from the PMO in an indication that the project is being driven from the top. Saarc nations without a dedicated space department have been requested to send members from scientific establishments.
While details will be worked out, the tasks being planned for the satellite system that will be funded entirely by India for the Saarc initiative, major roles would include providing tele medicine links within member nations as well as setting up of e-classrooms for skill development. Among the other tasks planned are enabling emergency communication for disaster situations and enabling inter-governmental networks.
NEW DELHI: Stepping up efforts to launch a dedicated satellite for the region, India has shared a concept note for a SAARC orbiter that is being proposed as an enabler to bring telemedicine, emergency communication and even television services to cooperation partners. The new South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) satellite that was given a go ahead by PM Narendra Modi last year, is proposed as a 2 ton class communication satellite that will cover the entire region after being launched from the Indian spaceport at Sriharikota.
A concept note on the satellite —tentatively designated SAARC SAT — that has been shared with Saarc nations for a special meeting next week reveals details of the Indian plans for space cooperation in the region. "Satellite based connectivity can meet a number of challenges that the Saarc countries face in the areas of education, health support, emergency communication," the note says.
india is proposing that the satellite, to be configured with Ku band transponders, be controlled from ISRO facilities at Hassan or Bhopal and be managed by an inter-governmental space cooperation consortium that would allocate tasks and missions to the space system. Over 70 delegates from Saarc nations are expected to come for a seminar on Monday where the finer details of the project are to be discussed From the Indian side, representation will include officials from the PMO in an indication that the project is being driven from the top. Saarc nations without a dedicated space department have been requested to send members from scientific establishments.
While details will be worked out, the tasks being planned for the satellite system that will be funded entirely by India for the Saarc initiative, major roles would include providing tele medicine links within member nations as well as setting up of e-classrooms for skill development. Among the other tasks planned are enabling emergency communication for disaster situations and enabling inter-governmental networks.
Phones can be tapped in corruption cases, CBI says
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HYDERABAD: Though Andhra Pradesh government officials have been alleging that their Telangana counterparts were resorting to an illegal act by tapping phones of legislators and even their chief minister, investigators said that police can tap phones in an anti-corruption operation.
Central Bureau of India (CBI) sleuths have been tapping phones for a long time. Investigators even claimed that it was within the purview of police to tap conversations in graft cases. Also, they said that it is admissible as evidence with supporting documentation in a court of law.
When contacted, senior CBI officials confirmed that the central probe agency, which has Anti-Corruption Division as one of its key branches, has been tapping phones in graft cases. They also stated that they have been furnishing evidence gathered against the accused, obtained through tapping in graft cases, before courts and that was admitted. "Along with audio recordings of phone conversations, we also furnish relevant documentation," a CBI officer said. In such cases, the CBI interprets corruption by a public servant as threat to the country's economy.
Based on a request of the unit head of CBI, the Bureau's director seeks permission from the Union home secretary through department of personnel and training (DoPT) for tapping phone conversations of the accused or the complainant or persons associated with the graft case as per section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act 1885.
In 2014, the CBI had tapped the phone of then Syndicate Bank chairman and managing director (CMD) SK Jain and trapped him when he demanded and accepted Rs 50 lakh bribe through his associates from a private firm to extend credit limit. IPS officer Ranjit Sinha, who was then the CBI director, even clarified that Jain's phone was tapped in relation to the case after obtaining permission from the Union government.
The CBI officials said that the state ACB could also tap the phone of an accused or complainant if required and the evidence obtained would be admissible in court.
"In case of emergency, when there is not sufficient time to obtain permission, tapping can be done first by giving in writing to the service provider that permission from the Union home secretary will be furnished within 15 days," a CBI official said.
Though ACB director general (DG) AK Khan clearly stated that the Bureau had not tapped phones of the AP chief minister or other important persons in relation to the note-for-vote case, the sleuths, who are part of the Central Investigation Unit (CIU) of the ACB, said that the Bureau could tap phones, especially in traps such as the note-for-vote case where two legislators were involved to buy/sell votes for the MLC elections.
"Tapping can be done by following due procedure, but normally ACB records audio conversations in digital recorders by placing the complainant's phone's speaker on in the presence of neutral witnesses," a former ACB official said.
Central Bureau of India (CBI) sleuths have been tapping phones for a long time. Investigators even claimed that it was within the purview of police to tap conversations in graft cases. Also, they said that it is admissible as evidence with supporting documentation in a court of law.
When contacted, senior CBI officials confirmed that the central probe agency, which has Anti-Corruption Division as one of its key branches, has been tapping phones in graft cases. They also stated that they have been furnishing evidence gathered against the accused, obtained through tapping in graft cases, before courts and that was admitted. "Along with audio recordings of phone conversations, we also furnish relevant documentation," a CBI officer said. In such cases, the CBI interprets corruption by a public servant as threat to the country's economy.
Based on a request of the unit head of CBI, the Bureau's director seeks permission from the Union home secretary through department of personnel and training (DoPT) for tapping phone conversations of the accused or the complainant or persons associated with the graft case as per section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act 1885.
In 2014, the CBI had tapped the phone of then Syndicate Bank chairman and managing director (CMD) SK Jain and trapped him when he demanded and accepted Rs 50 lakh bribe through his associates from a private firm to extend credit limit. IPS officer Ranjit Sinha, who was then the CBI director, even clarified that Jain's phone was tapped in relation to the case after obtaining permission from the Union government.
The CBI officials said that the state ACB could also tap the phone of an accused or complainant if required and the evidence obtained would be admissible in court.
"In case of emergency, when there is not sufficient time to obtain permission, tapping can be done first by giving in writing to the service provider that permission from the Union home secretary will be furnished within 15 days," a CBI official said.
Though ACB director general (DG) AK Khan clearly stated that the Bureau had not tapped phones of the AP chief minister or other important persons in relation to the note-for-vote case, the sleuths, who are part of the Central Investigation Unit (CIU) of the ACB, said that the Bureau could tap phones, especially in traps such as the note-for-vote case where two legislators were involved to buy/sell votes for the MLC elections.
"Tapping can be done by following due procedure, but normally ACB records audio conversations in digital recorders by placing the complainant's phone's speaker on in the presence of neutral witnesses," a former ACB official said.
Ancient Egypt Civilization: Polity, Society, Economy and Science
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During the Old , Middle and New Kingdom, ancient Egypt had developed a flourishing civilization. Many aspects of Egyptian political, social, economical life have played important roles in the development of current western civilization. Contents
Polity – The absolute Power of Pharaoh Three classes of Egyptian society Economy of the Egypt Civilization Religion in Egypt Civilization Mummification Gods in Ancient Egypt Civilization Development of Hieroglyphic writing Development of Mathematics and medicine Development of Architecture Polity – The absolute Power of Pharaoh In ancient Egypt, the pharaohs had absolute power partly because most of these rulers governed justly, but primarily because of the theocracy. The people believed the pharaohs were descended from a god and were gods themselves. In theory, the pharaoh owned all the land, commanded the army, controlled the irrigation system, and received the surpluses of crops produced on the royal estates. Since no one person could administer a huge kingdom, the pharaoh appointed officials to assist him. However, he was personally responsible for dispensing justice and for making all the important decisions regarding government affairs. Beginning with the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians created a complex but efficient administrative system that supported the absolute authority of the pharaoh. Three classes of Egyptian society There were three classes in the ancient Egyptian society. First was the class of people below the pharaoh. We can call it the upper class. This included priests, the court nobility, and the landed nobility. The priests performed the religious ceremonies, especially those having to do with the burial of the dead. The court nobles advised the pharaoh and carried out his orders. The landed nobles managed their great estates, and some of them also served as generals in the royal army. The upper class people lived in palatial homes, with luxurious furnishings and elaborate gardens. Women used cosmetics, beautified their hair, wore rouge and lipstick, and painted their nails. Both men and women used perfume and wear jewelry. Women enjoyed a favored place in society largely because all landed property descended from mother to daughter, rather than from father to son as in most other ancient cultures. They could be merchants, eat and dance in public, and do most of the things men were allowed to do. The class lower than the upper class was middle class, which included rich merchants, traders, skilled artisans and professional people such as teachers, artists, doctors, and scribes. There was an important place of scribes in the ancient Egypt society, because there were only a few who could read and write. The Lower class in ancient Egypt included slaves—usually war captives— and free laborers who worked on farms, irrigation systems, roads, and building projects. The free laborers, heavily burdened by taxes imposed on them by the pharaohs, had hardly any more political rights than the slaves. They lived poorly in small, mudbrick homes with few furnishings. From this class of free laborers, however, it was possible for bright and ambitious young Egyptians to rise to higher rank. Such persons might become merchants, priests, or even government officials. Sometimes loyal and able slaves were given their freedom. On a few occasions, a talented slave was known to rise to a position of authority in society. Economy of the Egypt Civilization The fertility of the Nile Valley and extensive irrigation systems enabled the Egyptians to reap large harvests. Because farmers produced more food than they needed for themselves, many of them became craftsmen or traders as well as farmers. Egyptian traders relied mainly on ships to transport their goods. Trade reached its height during the New Kingdom, when Egypt controlled the trade routes of the Near East. Egyptian ships carried products such as wheat and linens across the Mediterranean to Europe and Asia, returning with lumber and metal weapons, which Egypt did not produce. Religion in Egypt Civilization Egyptian Religion was based on belief in life after death and the worship of many gods. Above is the pyramid built about 2600 BC to hold the body of Pharaoh Khafre. It was once connected by a covered passageway to the Great Sphinx, which has the body of a lion and the head of a man, possibly Khafre. The papyrus scroll below was buried with a female mummy. Osiris, lord of the afterlife, sits in judgment while his son, dog-headed Anubis, weighs the heart of the woman against the feather of truth. Mummification Egyptians believed that just as plants decline in autumn and reappear in the spring, so also must man have life after death. They also believed that the body in which the soul had lived in life must be preserved in death in order for the soul to live on. The process of preserving the body, called mummification, developed into a highly skilled art. Beliefs about the afterlife led the Egyptians to build large tombs in which to keep the bodies of their dead rulers. Good conduct, as well as preservation of the body, was thought necessary for immortality, or life after death. Gods in Ancient Egypt Civilization Polytheism, or the worship of many gods, was characteristic of Egyptian religion during the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom. The most important gods were Amon-Re (Sun god) and Osiris (God of the underworld and lord of the afterlife). During the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaton in the New Kingdom, who ruled from 1375 to 1358 BC, a new faith was born. Akhenaton believed in one supreme god, rather than in many gods. The supreme god, Akhenaton thought, was Aton, the sun. Akhenaton forbade the worship of all gods but Aton, and withdrew the government support previously given to the priests of other gods. However, the priests were numerous and influential. They succeeded in terrifying the already fearful people into believing that if they obeyed Akhenaton they would suffer the wrath of the gods. While Akhenaton lived, his orders were not openly disobeyed, but after his death the priests persuaded Egyptians to return to the worship of many gods. The concept of one god, or monotheism, disappeared in Egypt for a time, but it was born again later in the Hebrew religion. Development of Hieroglyphic writing Between 4000 and 3000 BC, Egyptians developed a kind of picture writing known as hieroglyphics. The first writings consisted of pictures of objects, such as a house. Gradually, they started using ideas as well as objects. For example, a picture of an eye could mean sight or eye. In time, the writers also used picture signs to indicate sound. Although these developments were the beginnings of an alphabet, the Egyptians did not create an alphabetical system of writing. The first Egyptian books were written as early as 4000 B.C. on a material made from the papyrus plant, a kind of reed. Craftsmen sliced the pith of this plant into strips, overlapped them, and pasted them together. Papyrus (the origin of the word paper) was sold wherever Egyptian traders traveled. Egyptian books consisted of long rolls of papyrus. (One such roll, now in the British Museum, is 17 inches wide and 135 feet long.) Egyptian writings survived the passage of centuries because they were preserved in the dry climate of Egypt. The early Egyptian writings were about religion, such as the Book of the Dead already mentioned. During the Middle Kingdom, some adventure stories were written. These works were probably the first storybooks ever published. Development of Mathematics and medicine Because Nile floods washed away markers for land boundaries, the Egyptians surveyed the land frequently and used practical geometry in measuring the boundaries. Their engineers also used mathematics to work out the precise measurements necessary in the construction of their pyramids and temples. Thus, the science of mathematics advanced in ancient Egypt. Egyptian doctors were familiar with the anatomy of the human body and the healing properties of certain herbs. They also knew how to set broken bones and how to cure wounds. However, their writings on medicine, which describe different illnesses and the treatments for them, show that the Egyptians put much faith in the healing properties of magic. Development of Architecture The Egyptians were good builders in stone, and both sculptors and engineers delighted in great size. The Great Pyramids and the Sphinx are examples of the Egyptian fondness for huge structures. Religion inspired the building of Egyptian tombs and temples. The most famous temple was that of the god Amon, at Karnak, which occupies part of the site of ancient Thebes. Part of this great temple still stands. Its hall is 400 feet long, 175 feet wide—larger than a football field— and 80 feet high. The roof was supported by rows of giant columns. The Egyptians were the first to support roofs with columns rather than with walls.
Polity – The absolute Power of Pharaoh Three classes of Egyptian society Economy of the Egypt Civilization Religion in Egypt Civilization Mummification Gods in Ancient Egypt Civilization Development of Hieroglyphic writing Development of Mathematics and medicine Development of Architecture Polity – The absolute Power of Pharaoh In ancient Egypt, the pharaohs had absolute power partly because most of these rulers governed justly, but primarily because of the theocracy. The people believed the pharaohs were descended from a god and were gods themselves. In theory, the pharaoh owned all the land, commanded the army, controlled the irrigation system, and received the surpluses of crops produced on the royal estates. Since no one person could administer a huge kingdom, the pharaoh appointed officials to assist him. However, he was personally responsible for dispensing justice and for making all the important decisions regarding government affairs. Beginning with the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians created a complex but efficient administrative system that supported the absolute authority of the pharaoh. Three classes of Egyptian society There were three classes in the ancient Egyptian society. First was the class of people below the pharaoh. We can call it the upper class. This included priests, the court nobility, and the landed nobility. The priests performed the religious ceremonies, especially those having to do with the burial of the dead. The court nobles advised the pharaoh and carried out his orders. The landed nobles managed their great estates, and some of them also served as generals in the royal army. The upper class people lived in palatial homes, with luxurious furnishings and elaborate gardens. Women used cosmetics, beautified their hair, wore rouge and lipstick, and painted their nails. Both men and women used perfume and wear jewelry. Women enjoyed a favored place in society largely because all landed property descended from mother to daughter, rather than from father to son as in most other ancient cultures. They could be merchants, eat and dance in public, and do most of the things men were allowed to do. The class lower than the upper class was middle class, which included rich merchants, traders, skilled artisans and professional people such as teachers, artists, doctors, and scribes. There was an important place of scribes in the ancient Egypt society, because there were only a few who could read and write. The Lower class in ancient Egypt included slaves—usually war captives— and free laborers who worked on farms, irrigation systems, roads, and building projects. The free laborers, heavily burdened by taxes imposed on them by the pharaohs, had hardly any more political rights than the slaves. They lived poorly in small, mudbrick homes with few furnishings. From this class of free laborers, however, it was possible for bright and ambitious young Egyptians to rise to higher rank. Such persons might become merchants, priests, or even government officials. Sometimes loyal and able slaves were given their freedom. On a few occasions, a talented slave was known to rise to a position of authority in society. Economy of the Egypt Civilization The fertility of the Nile Valley and extensive irrigation systems enabled the Egyptians to reap large harvests. Because farmers produced more food than they needed for themselves, many of them became craftsmen or traders as well as farmers. Egyptian traders relied mainly on ships to transport their goods. Trade reached its height during the New Kingdom, when Egypt controlled the trade routes of the Near East. Egyptian ships carried products such as wheat and linens across the Mediterranean to Europe and Asia, returning with lumber and metal weapons, which Egypt did not produce. Religion in Egypt Civilization Egyptian Religion was based on belief in life after death and the worship of many gods. Above is the pyramid built about 2600 BC to hold the body of Pharaoh Khafre. It was once connected by a covered passageway to the Great Sphinx, which has the body of a lion and the head of a man, possibly Khafre. The papyrus scroll below was buried with a female mummy. Osiris, lord of the afterlife, sits in judgment while his son, dog-headed Anubis, weighs the heart of the woman against the feather of truth. Mummification Egyptians believed that just as plants decline in autumn and reappear in the spring, so also must man have life after death. They also believed that the body in which the soul had lived in life must be preserved in death in order for the soul to live on. The process of preserving the body, called mummification, developed into a highly skilled art. Beliefs about the afterlife led the Egyptians to build large tombs in which to keep the bodies of their dead rulers. Good conduct, as well as preservation of the body, was thought necessary for immortality, or life after death. Gods in Ancient Egypt Civilization Polytheism, or the worship of many gods, was characteristic of Egyptian religion during the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom. The most important gods were Amon-Re (Sun god) and Osiris (God of the underworld and lord of the afterlife). During the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaton in the New Kingdom, who ruled from 1375 to 1358 BC, a new faith was born. Akhenaton believed in one supreme god, rather than in many gods. The supreme god, Akhenaton thought, was Aton, the sun. Akhenaton forbade the worship of all gods but Aton, and withdrew the government support previously given to the priests of other gods. However, the priests were numerous and influential. They succeeded in terrifying the already fearful people into believing that if they obeyed Akhenaton they would suffer the wrath of the gods. While Akhenaton lived, his orders were not openly disobeyed, but after his death the priests persuaded Egyptians to return to the worship of many gods. The concept of one god, or monotheism, disappeared in Egypt for a time, but it was born again later in the Hebrew religion. Development of Hieroglyphic writing Between 4000 and 3000 BC, Egyptians developed a kind of picture writing known as hieroglyphics. The first writings consisted of pictures of objects, such as a house. Gradually, they started using ideas as well as objects. For example, a picture of an eye could mean sight or eye. In time, the writers also used picture signs to indicate sound. Although these developments were the beginnings of an alphabet, the Egyptians did not create an alphabetical system of writing. The first Egyptian books were written as early as 4000 B.C. on a material made from the papyrus plant, a kind of reed. Craftsmen sliced the pith of this plant into strips, overlapped them, and pasted them together. Papyrus (the origin of the word paper) was sold wherever Egyptian traders traveled. Egyptian books consisted of long rolls of papyrus. (One such roll, now in the British Museum, is 17 inches wide and 135 feet long.) Egyptian writings survived the passage of centuries because they were preserved in the dry climate of Egypt. The early Egyptian writings were about religion, such as the Book of the Dead already mentioned. During the Middle Kingdom, some adventure stories were written. These works were probably the first storybooks ever published. Development of Mathematics and medicine Because Nile floods washed away markers for land boundaries, the Egyptians surveyed the land frequently and used practical geometry in measuring the boundaries. Their engineers also used mathematics to work out the precise measurements necessary in the construction of their pyramids and temples. Thus, the science of mathematics advanced in ancient Egypt. Egyptian doctors were familiar with the anatomy of the human body and the healing properties of certain herbs. They also knew how to set broken bones and how to cure wounds. However, their writings on medicine, which describe different illnesses and the treatments for them, show that the Egyptians put much faith in the healing properties of magic. Development of Architecture The Egyptians were good builders in stone, and both sculptors and engineers delighted in great size. The Great Pyramids and the Sphinx are examples of the Egyptian fondness for huge structures. Religion inspired the building of Egyptian tombs and temples. The most famous temple was that of the god Amon, at Karnak, which occupies part of the site of ancient Thebes. Part of this great temple still stands. Its hall is 400 feet long, 175 feet wide—larger than a football field— and 80 feet high. The roof was supported by rows of giant columns. The Egyptians were the first to support roofs with columns rather than with walls.
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